From the 12th century teaching moved out of religious establishments and into separate universities. Students could study theology, law, medicine and the arts. The arts covered a broad range of subjects, including grammar, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. Due to the demand for text books, the book production industry became increasingly well-organised.

Textbooks were produced as a combination of text and study notes in one book. The notes, or gloss, appeared on the page of the text they referred to, sometimes between the lines of text, or in the margins around it. Scribes and printers adapted their page layouts to fit both in.

And of course, what student can resist adding notes or comments in the margin too?

This is a study text of the Minor Prophets (Hosea to Malachi). The Bible text is written in large script and sits at the top centre of each page. The gloss is written in smaller script between the lines of text and all around it. Extensive extra notes have been added in the margins.

The decoration helps the reader navigate this complex arrangement. Red paragraph marks point to the glosses between the lines. Marginal glosses are indicated in red or blue.

Bible. Old Testament. Minor prophets. Glossed, Latin. England, 1200-1250. Med.Ms R1.

Apart from the Bible, Aristotle’s works were the most widely studied and influential books of the Middle Ages. From them came new methods of research and teaching, which were applied to all disciplines.

This translation of Aristotle by William of Moerbecke has extensive comments added in several hands over two centuries. The notes on these pages date from the 14th century. The wear and tear on the vellum is as recognizable as the battered condition of many student texts today.

Aristotle. Metaphysica, Physica, De Meteoris (Metaphysics, Physics, Meteorology). Latin. Translation of William of Moerbeke. Northern France, early 14th century. Med.Ms G126.

In this copy of Statius’ tale of the Theban brothers, the printer has adapted the layout of the page so the text and relevant commentary fit neatly on the page, just as is done in the manuscript textbooks. Larger type is used for the text and smaller for the gloss. A student has added handwritten notes in the margins.

Publius Papinius Statius. Opera (Works). Venice: Jacobus de Paganinis, 1490.